How can a procurement<\/a> platform integrate semantic supplier discovery, quantitative performance evaluation, and configuration decisions into a single, coherent workflow?<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n To answer this question, we develop a framework for a data-driven industrial platform that connects the following three elements: <\/p>\n\n\n\n First, research on supplier selection and supply chain configuration is reviewed in order to identify the representation and workflow gaps that emerge when these models are embedded in platform settings. The proposed architecture is then introduced alongside an explanation of how interoperable supplier profiles, simulation-based evaluation, and KPI-based configuration jointly address these gaps.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Supply chain configuration refers to the structural design or adaptation of a supply network. It specifies which actors are included, how they are connected, and how products and services are allocated across tiers and transportation routes [19].<\/p>\n\n\n\n In procurement-driven contexts, configuration decisions are largely determined by supplier selection. Firms must decide which suppliers are eligible for a given set of items or services and how sourcing strategies, such as single, dual, or multiple sourcing, affect redundancy, dependency, and risk exposure in the resulting network structure [20, 21].<\/p>\n\n\n\n Existing literature formalizes supplier selection as a combinatorial optimization problem [22-24]. To reflect real-world uncertainty, these models are frequently extended through stochastic optimization approaches, scenario-based formulations, and probabilistic (chance) constraints [16, 21].<\/p>\n\n\n\n In procurement-driven supply chain configuration, decisions are typically guided by a set of recurring performance dimensions: economic efficiency, responsiveness, reliability, feasibility, and sustainability. These dimensions must be translated into measurable indicators that can be computed during evaluation and subsequently used as objectives or constraints in configuration problems [25-27].<\/p>\n\n\n\n In Figure 1<\/strong>, we specify the KPIs used in this work and clarify their role in linking evaluation results to supplier selection and network configuration decisions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Industrial procurement faces three interconnected challenges when reconfiguring supply chains:<\/p>\n\n\n\n The proposed architecture addresses these challenges through an integrated three-module system (Fig. 2<\/strong>). Module 1 transforms heterogeneous supplier descriptions into standardized, machine-readable profiles that enable capability matching. Module 2 converts structured supplier data into discrete-event simulation models for performance evaluation. Module 3 uses a consistent KPI interface to formulate and solve supplier selection problems using mathematical optimization or metaheuristic algorithms.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Traditional approaches to supplier discovery rely on manual search through supplier directories, databases, or company websites, where buyers filter candidates using basic keyword matching on company names, locations, or capability descriptions [35]. This approach faces several limitations in complex industrial procurement contexts. Terminology varies significantly across companies and sub-sectors\u2014one supplier may describe a capability as \u201cprecision machining\u201d while another uses \u201ctight-tolerance manufacturing\u201d for the same service. Furthermore, keyword searches cannot capture semantic relationships; searching for \u201cCNC milling\u201d will miss suppliers listing \u201c5-axis machining\u201d even though it represents a more specific capability.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Module 1 replaces keyword-based discovery with an ontology-driven approach that matches suppliers based on the meaning of their capabilities, not just the words used to describe them. The architecture adopts the Asset Administration Shell (AAS) standard [36] as the foundation for digital supplier representation. Although the AAS was originally developed to digitize manufacturing resources in Industry 4.0 contexts [37], its use here is driven by three key factors that enable semantic discovery: <\/p>\n\n\n\n Beyond semantic discovery, AAS-based supplier profiles can act as a stable integration layer for customer toolchains by exposing standardized endpoints and supported exchange formats (e.g., neutral CAD\/3D formats and associated metadata). This enables the interoperable handover of engineering artifacts and reduces friction in supplier onboarding and co-engineering workflows [39-41].<\/p>\n\n\n\n The platform structures supplier profile data into two ontological domains: Actor and Service [42]. The Actor class captures stable organizational characteristics\u2014company identity, legal designation, geographic location, industry classifications (e.g., NACE codes), and commercial context\u2014that provide the basis for evaluating supplier reliability, proximity, and strategic fit. The Service class defines dynamic technical capabilities and operational parameters\u2014process classifications (e.g., ECLASS codes), precision specifications, material compatibility, production volume constraints, lead time ranges, and environmental metrics such as carbon footprint\u2014that may evolve as suppliers add equipment or modify processes. <\/p>\n\n\n\n Together, both domains contribute to a composite similarity score that ranks candidates according to buyer-defined priorities. The separation also serves the downstream modules: Actor data informs network topology and location constraints in Module 3, while Service data provides the technical parameters required for simulation model generation in Module 2.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Within the Actor-Service framework, the platform implements a two-tier data structure that addresses a fundamental tension in supplier discovery: buyers need detailed information to make informed decisions, but suppliers are reluctant to publicly disclose operational details that could reveal competitive advantages or be exploited by competitors. The term \u2018tier\u2019 here refers to data access levels: Tier 1 is publicly accessible, while Tier 2 is restricted to authenticated buyers.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Tier 1 provides the information needed for initial supplier filtering using standardized, non-sensitive data that suppliers typically disclose publicly. Every data element in Tier 1 is mapped to standardized semantic identifiers (IRDIs\/IRIs) from industrial classification systems such as ECLASS or IEC CDD, eliminating terminology ambiguity across languages and company-specific descriptions. For example, the ECLASS identifier \u20180173-1#02-ABG776#003\u2019 is a standardized code assigned to a specific machining process within the ECLASS classification hierarchy. Any supplier profile that references this identifier\u2014regardless of whether they describe the process in English, German, or French\u2014is retrieved by the same query, eliminating language and terminology barriers. Figure 3<\/strong> details the Tier 1 profile structure. <\/p>\n\n\n\n In summary, Tier 1 filtering operates across two dimensions. Industry classifications and process types are evaluated using taxonomy-based similarity, capturing semantic relationships between related capabilities. Technical capabilities such as material compatibility, surface roughness, tolerance, and carbon footprint are compared using feature-based similarity, with hard numerical thresholds for surface roughness, tolerance, and carbon footprint eliminating non-compliant suppliers outright. Together, these mechanisms reduce a potentially large supplier pool to a qualified shortlist that proceeds to detailed evaluation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Tier 2 provides the detailed computational parameters required for automated simulation model generation (Module 2), accessible only to authenticated buyers who have passed Tier 1 screening. Tier 2 data is structured using specialized AAS submodels: Hierarchical Structures (02011) maps the supplier\u2019s factory floor topology and production station connectivity; Production Calendar (02067) captures temporal operating constraints such as shift schedules and maintenance windows; and Purchase Order (02050) provides commercial boundary conditions including pricing structures and lead times. Tier 2 additionally includes facility layout data describing equipment capabilities, processing times, and buffer capacities. Figure 4 <\/strong>summarizes the Tier 2 structure.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Tier 2 parameters transform static capability descriptions into dynamic models that can predict supplier performance under varying scenarios. While Tier 1 indicates whether a supplier possesses a required capability, Tier 2 reveals how that capability performs in practice\u2014whether it is constrained by production bottlenecks or limited by shift schedules. This distinction is crucial for accurate lead time projections and delivery reliability estimates.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Once semantic filtering has narrowed the candidate pool to a qualified shortlist, the system ranks suppliers by calculating a global similarity score Where The similarity within each domain is calculated differently depending on the nature of the data. Taxonomy-based similarity is used for hierarchically structured classifications such as industry codes and process types from ECLASS. Rather than requiring an exact match, the system measures how closely related two concepts are within the taxonomy by identifying their Lowest Common Ancestor (LCA) \u2014the most specific concept that subsumes both. A buyer querying for \u201cautomotive stamping\u201d will still match a supplier offering \u201csheet metal forming\u201d because both share a close common ancestor in the ECLASS hierarchy. The similarity is quantified using Lin similarity [43]:<\/p>\n\n\n\n Where Feature-based similarity is used for technical capability sets such as material compatibility and offered processes. The system compares the set of capabilities required by the buyer against those offered by the supplier using the Jaccard Index [45]:<\/p>\n\n\n\n A supplier offering exactly the requested set of materials or processes scores 1.0, while a supplier with partial overlap scores proportionally lower.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Hard constraint filtering is applied to numerical specifications such as achievable tolerances, surface roughness, and carbon footprint. If a supplier\u2019s value falls outside the buyer\u2019s required threshold, that component is set to zero, removing the supplier from the shortlist regardless of performance elsewhere.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The final Static capability descriptions from Tier 1 profiles indicate whether suppliers possess the required capabilities, but they cannot predict actual operational performance under realistic conditions. Bottlenecks, shift schedules, equipment downtime, and capacity constraints significantly affect achievable lead times and delivery reliability. <\/p>\n\n\n\n Module 2 addresses this limitation by generating executable discrete-event simulation models that quantify how supplier-specific operational characteristics impact real-world performance. The module uses high-fidelity Tier 2 data from AAS profiles and visual facility layouts to generate dynamic supplier performance projections, enabling buyers to evaluate facility-level behavior without requiring specialized simulation expertise.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Module 2\u2019s technical core is a hybrid multi-agent architecture that semantically parses 2D facility layouts by integrating large language models (LLMs) with deterministic computer vision to interpret spatial relationships and material flow directions. The pipeline decomposes visual interpretation into four phases as illustrated in Figure 5<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The simulation model is enhanced by direct injection of node-specific parameters from the supplier\u2019s AAS Tier 2 profile, mapped via semantic identifiers to eliminate manual parameter entry or LLM-based estimation. Specifically, the cycle time attribute from the hierarchical structures submodel defines deterministic processing durations for each production station, while buffer capacity parameters establish queue limits and throughput constraints.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The Production Calendar submodel (AAS 02067) provides temporal operating constraints including shift schedules, planned breaks, and maintenance windows, enabling accurate modeling of effective capacity based on actual working hours rather than theoretical 24\/7 operation. Delivery lead time attributes from the purchase order submodel (AAS 02050) additionally provide temporal boundary conditions for schedule adherence evaluation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n A proof-of-concept prototype of the ASMG module was implemented and validated on a representative U-shaped manufacturing layout featuring parallel processing stations and multi-directional recirculation loops. The hybrid multi-agent pipeline achieved a 90% success rate across 30 repeated runs, generating fully functional, parameter-enriched discrete-event simulation models in Siemens Plant Simulation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The automated approach reduced model generation time from approximately 60 minutes (manual expert construction) to approximately 5 minutes, and cost from \u20ac50 to \u20ac0.23 per model, representing a 92% time reduction and 99% cost reduction. Minor connection-logic errors occurred in 6.7% of runs and were manually correctable within minutes; only 3.3% of runs resulted in critical failure. These results indicate reliability suitable for practical industrial deployment [46].<\/p>\n\n\n\n Module 1 identifies technically qualified suppliers and Module 2 quantifies their individual operational performance. However, procurement decisions must evaluate supplier combinations rather than individual suppliers in isolation. Different sourcing strategies\u2014such as single-sourcing from one supplier versus dual-sourcing from two geographically dispersed suppliers\u2014create fundamentally different supply chain structures with distinct risk-cost-speed trade-offs. Module 3 addresses this system-level configuration challenge by evaluating how different supplier combinations perform across multiple objectives and constraints.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The optimization process combines node-specific performance parameters from Module 2 with buyer requirements, including bill of materials dependencies, logistics parameters (transportation modes, lead times, Incoterms), geographic distances affecting cost and environmental impact, and temporal constraints such as delivery deadlines.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The computational logic uses iterative simulations or mathematical optimizations, often employing MILP or Genetic Algorithms, to map product flow through selected nodes while considering internal resource constraints and external lead-time variances. The platform evaluates and ranks proposed configurations using the three KPIs introduced in Figure 1<\/strong>\u2014total supply chain cost, total lead time, and service level\/tardy orders\u2014each computed from the node-specific parameters provided by Module 2.<\/p>\n\n\n\n By analyzing these KPIs simultaneously, the system resolves trade-offs\u2014such as choosing between a low-cost supplier with long lead times and a faster but more expensive alternative\u2014and outputs a ranked list of supply chain configurations as a basis for sourcing decisions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The proposed framework addresses diverse supply chain configuration challenges.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The framework presented here is a conceptual architecture; end-to-end integration of all three modules with real supplier data and procurement decisions remains a task for the future. <\/p>\n\n\n\n Practical deployment faces several additional challenges. AAS adoption remains limited, especially among small-to-medium enterprises lacking digital infrastructure, making widespread supplier participation uncertain. Suppliers may resist disclosing Tier 2 operational data due to competition concerns, requiring trust mechanisms such as secure governance protocols and tiered access controls. Additionally, the framework assumes accurate self-reporting, so verification through third-party audits or performance monitoring is necessary to maintain data credibility. Large-scale optimization problems involving many suppliers across multiple components require algorithms that maintain acceptable computation times. <\/p>\n\n\n\n A further limitation is the lack of delivery-level quality evidence: the approach does not yet model or ingest serialized inspection reports (CTQ parameters) and material certificates per shipment (lot\/serial). As these records are often heterogeneous and partly unstructured, automated incoming inspection and end-to-end traceability are only partially supported at this point. Finally, shifting from relationship-based to data-driven supplier selection requires cultural change and gradual integration alongside existing procurement processes. <\/p>\n\n\n\n This paper presented a data-driven industrial platform that integrates semantic supplier discovery, automated simulation model generation, and supply chain configuration into a single, traceable decision-support workflow. Supplier capabilities and constraints are represented in AAS-based profiles structured by an Actor-Service ontology, enabling consistent requirement formulation, interoperable data exchange, and similarity-based shortlisting beyond keyword search. <\/p>\n\n\n\n These profiles then feed Module 2, which automatically generates supplier-specific discrete-event simulation models from Tier 2 data and facility layouts, translating operational parameters into lead-time and capacity evidence. Finally, configuration alternatives are compared using a fixed KPI interface, so that discovery outputs and simulation evidence feed directly into optimization-based selection. <\/p>\n\n\n\n The architecture supports repeated reconfiguration under changing conditions while maintaining continuity from requirements to final selection. Future work should address AAS adoption barriers, data sharing trust mechanisms, and enterprise system integration, and validate the end-to-end workflow with real industrial datasets. Furthermore, the ontological Actor-Service structure underlying Module 1 provides a natural basis for knowledge graph representations, which could expose additional relational queries and open further research directions in supplier network analytics.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The authors used ChatGPT (OpenAI; GPT-5.2) as an AI-assisted editing and content-support tool during manuscript preparation to improve spelling, grammar, clarity, and readability and to support drafting and structuring of text. All AI-assisted output was reviewed and revised by the authors, who take full responsibility for the content of this publication.<\/em><\/p>\n\n
State of the art<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n
![\"Figure](\"https:\/\/industry-science.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/08\/Ganesh_I4S-26-4_Figure-1-1024x706.webp\")
System architecture<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\n
![\"Figure](\"https:\/\/industry-science.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/08\/Ganesh_I4S-26-4_Figure-2-1024x412.webp\")
Module 1: Semantic supplier discovery<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\n
The Actor-Service ontological framework<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n
The two tiers<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n
![\"Figure](\"https:\/\/industry-science.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/08\/Ganesh_I4S-26-4_Figure-3-1024x980.webp\")
![\"Figure](\"https:\/\/industry-science.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/08\/Ganesh_I4S-26-4_Figure-4-1024x621.webp\")
for each supplier\u2014a single number between 0 and 1 reflecting how closely a supplier matches the buyer\u2019s requirements. This score is a weighted combination of how well the supplier matches across the Actor and Service domains [43]:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/industry-science.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/08\/Ganesh_I4S-26-4_Formula-1-1024x64.png\")
<\/figure>\n\n\n\n is the buyer\u2019s query,
is the supplier profile, and
and
are buyer-defined weights reflecting whether organizational fit or technical capability is prioritized.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/industry-science.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/08\/Ganesh_I4S-26-4_Formula-2-1024x159.png\")
<\/figure>\n\n\n\n,
measures concept specificity based on how frequently concept
appears across registered supplier profiles [44]. Concepts appearing rarely in the supplier pool carry high information content, meaning that two suppliers sharing a rare, specialized capability receive a higher similarity score than two suppliers sharing a broad, common one.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/industry-science.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/08\/Ganesh_I4S-26-4_Formula-3.png\")
<\/figure>\n\n\n\n score combines all these evaluations across both domains, producing a ranked list where the highest-scoring suppliers proceed to Module 2 for detailed simulation-based evaluation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Module 2: Automatic simulation model generation (ASMG)<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n
![\"Figure](\"https:\/\/industry-science.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/08\/Ganesh_I4S-26-4_Figure-5-1024x348.webp\")
Module 3: Supply chain configuration and optimization<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Application scenarios and limitations<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\n
A data-driven industrial platform still under development<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n
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<\/a>, ![\"Open](\"https:\/\/industry-science.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/08\/Schleimer_AdobeStock_520430566_Melisa-196x180.jpg\")
\n <\/picture>\n <\/div>\n ![\"From](\"https:\/\/industry-science.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/08\/Romeike_AdobeStock_2042534786_DC-Studio-196x180.jpg\")
\n <\/picture>\n <\/div>\n ![\"Classification](\"https:\/\/industry-science.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/Botsch_AdobeStock_1873673267_Grispb-196x180.webp\")
\n <\/picture>\n <\/div>\n ![\"Industry](\"https:\/\/industry-science.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/Donhauser_AdobeStock_507850396_Gorodenkoff-196x180.webp\")
\n <\/picture>\n <\/div>\n ![](\"https:\/\/industry-science.com\/wp-content\/plugins\/gito-publisher\/img\/i4s-login.png\")
\n\t\t\t <\/div>Digitalization projects help users represent complex processes more simply and efficiently. However, there are many obstacles to implementation. Reluctance to implement these projects is palpable. This affects, among others, employers and employees, who may fall behind economically by waiting or avoiding change. These observations can be traced back to an overarching research question: What barriers and systemic challenges hinder sustainable transformation within the context of Industry 4.0, particularly when considering human labor in production engineering? What questions are the affected stakeholders asking? The primary goal of this long-term research project is to define these questions decisively and in detail in order to develop a conceptual foundation that integrates research, teaching, and technological development and thus combines the potential of digital technologies with the experiential and practical knowledge of production workers. <\/div>\n <\/div>\n